Understanding How Adults Learn by Stephen Brookfield

1. Gibb ---(1960)---problem centered
1. experience centered
2. learner must be free to look at experience
3. learner involved in setting goals
4. feedback to learner relative to progress on goals
   
2. Harry Miller ---(1964) ---learner must be:
1. motivated to change behavior
2. aware of inadequacy of present behavior
3. understand behavior required
4. have opportunity to practice behavior
5. be reinforced
6. have a sequence of appropriate materials
   
3. J.R.Kidd---(1973)---concepts influencing adult learning:
1. changing conditions over the life span
2. societal role changes
3. egalitarian nature of student-teacher relations
4. physiological differences between children/adults
5. social functions of adults differ from children
6. self directing nature of the adult
7. meaning of time (physical, cultural, emotional)
8. aging and death (attitudes toward)
   
4. Know---(1977)
1. adults learn informally and continually as they adapt and adjust
2. physical, social, personal context surrounds learning
3. adults underestimate their abilities
4. fluid intelligence decreases
5. crystallized intelligence increases
6. short term memory stable until late adulthood
7. prior experience may enhance or interfere with learning
8. older adults learn better when they set their pace and include periodic breaks
   
5. Smith---(1982)---six observations on adult learning:
1. lifelong
2. involves change
3. personal
4. a function of human development
5. intuitive
6. pertains to experience

       Learners exhibit four characteristics:
           (1) multiple roles
           (2) accumulate many life experiences which result in many preferences
           (3) pass through developmental stages
           (4) experience anxiety and ambivalence in orientation to learning

• Darkenwald and Merrian---(1982)---eight principles of learning
• readiness depends on amount of previous learning
• intrinsic motivation produces more permanent learning
• positive reinforcement is effective
• material to be learned should be presented in some organized fashion
• learning is enhanced by repetition
• meaningful tasks are more fully and easily learned
• active participation improves retention
• environmental factors affect learning